[Show details]

The overall objective of the long-term Mindanao Rural Development Program (MRDP) is to reduce poverty and ensure food security for the rural poor and indigenous communities in 25 provinces of Mindanao through the implementation of better-targeted agricultural and fisheries-related rural development ...

[Hide details]

The overall objective of the long-term Mindanao Rural Development Program (MRDP) is to reduce poverty and ensure food security for the rural poor and indigenous communities in 25 provinces of Mindanao through the implementation of better-targeted agricultural and fisheries-related rural development and biological diversity conservation programs and through improved institutional, technical, management and financial capabilities and systems of participating local government units (LGUs). MPAs were implemented at two sites: Paril-Sangay and Bongo Island.

A resource assessment survey was carried out to generate comprehensive baseline information that will provide the biophysical and social bases for management of the marine protected areas in the Paril-Sangay and Bongo project sites and at the same time, to serve as the venue for the initial capacitation and involvement of stakeholders in the management of their area. The landscape cum oceanographic approach was employed as the general assessment framework of the resource assessment. This approach combined and highlighted the interrelationship between the biophysical environment and the social dimension that influences human activities impacting on the environment. Specific information generated as follows: a. In the biophysical assessment, condition/degree of disturbance in the ecosystems both coastal and forest, the status and value, both ecological and economic, of the species existing therein and, the areas of ecological processes critical in maintaining biodiversity in the area were identified; b. In the social assessment, demographic information such as population and population trends, economic activities and anthropogenic activities affecting the environment were likewise established.

Over a 3-year period from 2002 to 2005, catch per unit effort (CPUE) of the reef fishery in the Paril-Sangay area improved 97.4%. This was attributed primarily to the reduction in destructive fishing practices. At Bongo Island, the increase in CPUE over the same period was only 9.4%. Branching coral cover in shallow (3 m) waters increased by 27% at Paril-Sangay and 38% at Bongo Island. However, in deeper waters (10 m), branching coral cover decreased by 47% at Paril-Sangay and 14.3% at Bongo Island. This decrease in deeper coral cover was attributed to a crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak in 2004 and to other environmental disturbances, particularly sedimentation. Sedimentation was noted to be a major problem in the coastal/marine waters of Paril-Sangay and Bongo Island. Paril-Sangay’s biophysical make-up exemplifies a varied landscape system characterized by rugged terrestrial landscape interconnected to its coastal/marine waters and a small but productive agricultural land. The integrity and productivity of its marine ecosystem is therefore closely linked to its forest watersheds which unfortunately have undergone various forms of exploitation and degradation resulting in soil erosion. Bongo Island, on the other hand, typifies a small and fragile island ecosystem surrounded by coastal waters whose productivity is linked to the large Rio Grande River in the mainland which carries sediments from its headwaters in the uplands. As a result, the impacts of soil erosion from upland activities were cited as the major contributors to the degradation of the Paril-Sangay and Bongo Island coastal ecosystems and limiting the recovery of the coastal resources. The project concluded that the implementation of the watershed approach should be considered in order to promote a management continuum from the upland to the coastal zone.

[Hide details]

[Show details]

Studies were performed to determine the types and magnitudes of impacts caused by poor land-use practices within watersheds on adjacent coral reef ecosystems on Guam, Palau and Pohnpei. The overall study was aimed at identifying the biological and physical parameters affecting the coral reef commun ...

[Hide details]

Studies were performed to determine the types and magnitudes of impacts caused by poor land-use practices within watersheds on adjacent coral reef ecosystems on Guam, Palau and Pohnpei. The overall study was aimed at identifying the biological and physical parameters affecting the coral reef communities, as well as the social aspects of policy development and implementation within the adjacent human communities. At all three sites, the local communities were involved in the project scope, design and the application of the research results.

In Guam, Fouha Bay was chosen as the research site. It is surrounded by steeply sloping hills that are often burned to clear vegetation by deer and pig hunters, accelerating erosion rates. The mayor and community members requested research to be performed in their village, and provided logistical support. Studies revealed high rates of sedimentation related to runoff from rain events, high levels of oceanic swell-induced mud re-suspension in the absence of additional rainfall, and high levels of sediment retention in algal mats smothering the coral reefs and preventing the recruitment of coral larvae. Sedimentation had significant impacts on coral community composition over the entire 300m-long bay. Riverine sediment input exceeded sediment flushing by a factor of two, on an annual basis.

In Palau, Airai Bay was chosen, which is bordered by a substantial mangrove forest, and is impacted by sedimentation from upland clearing for a road, farms and a housing development. The mangroves had a significant buffering effect, reducing the sediment load reaching Airai bay by approximately 30%. These mangroves were being cut and filled to make room for houses. The impact of this activity was immediately evident, as the area of coral mortality spread 150m further into the bay soon after the clearing commenced.

In Pohnpei, the Enipein watershed was selected for study. The key concern within this watershed is the clearing of the upland rainforest for sakau (a narcotizing plant and major cash crop) farming, which has resulted in extensive erosion and subsequent sedimentation of the mangrove-fringed estuary and the coral reefs. The sedimentation data demonstrated that the coral reef community within the designated MPA was being impacted by the watershed discharges, reducing the value of the marine conservation effort alone.

Specific problems tied to human activities responsible for sedimentation effects on the reefs were identified at all three sites. A set of scientifically sound approaches for reversing the negative trends in reef health were provided to each community.

Two important points arising from this study are that:

(1) Coral reefs and other coastal marine ecosystems effectively extend into adjacent watersheds, and should be managed as an integrated unit. Marine protected areas often will miss their targets of resource protection unless they are coupled with effectively enforced terrestrial protected areas (TPAs).

(2) Accumulated sediment is lethal to coastal coral reefs undergoing phase shifts due to increased nutrient input and the overfishing of herbivorous species. These sediments are often re-suspended by waves, preventing larval recruitment and thus the recovery of affected populations. Sediments also serve as a repository of pollutants associated with anoxic bottom sediments. Until these issues are integrated into coral reef management, further declines in resources will continue to occur.

[Hide details]

[Show details]

Russ et al. (2005) used underwater visual census at 15 no-take marine reserves in the Philippines to both infer and measure recovery of reef fishes. They made a single estimate of the biomass of large predatory reef fishes (Serranidae, Lutjanidae, Lethrinidae) heavily exploited by fisheries in each ...

[Hide details]

Russ et al. (2005) used underwater visual census at 15 no-take marine reserves in the Philippines to both infer and measure recovery of reef fishes. They made a single estimate of the biomass of large predatory reef fishes (Serranidae, Lutjanidae, Lethrinidae) heavily exploited by fisheries in each of 13 well protected no-take reserves (age range 0.5 to 13 yr), and in nearby fished sites. They also measured rates of biomass increase of these fish regularly for 18 yr (1983 to 2001) in 2 no-take reserves (Sumilon, Apo) and fished sites. A minimum of 3-4 years was required to measure significant increases in biomass within a reserve, but at least 6 years was needed to measure significant differences in biomass between reserves and adjacent nonreserve sites). The reserve:nonreserve biomass ratios at maximum duration of reserve protection were similar for inferred (9.0) and measured (6.3 to 9.8) estimates. An index of habitat complexity did not significantly affect estimates of recover, and reserve protection was generally effective. Thus, using similar methods of reserve protection and census on the same species in similar areas, one can make useful inferences about rates of recovery in no-take marine reserves. Such inferences are clearly not definitive, and should be viewed merely as guides to possible recovery rates. There is no substitute for properly designed monitoring studies that can not definitively determine recovery rates and also provide information on the mechanisms driving recovery rates.

In a related study (Russ and Alcala 2004), the authors noted that after 9 years of protection at Sumilon Island and 18 years at Apo Island, the biomass of large predatory fishes was still increasing exponentially. Furthermore, there was little evidence that the rate of recovery of biomass inside the reserves was slowing down even after many years of protection. This led the authors to suggest that a considerable length of time is needed for full recovery to occur. They concluded that the time required for full recovery will be 15 at Sumilon Island and 40 years at Apo Island. This length of time is consistent with the life history characteristics of large predatory fish (e.g. slow growth, large body size, and late maturation), and with empirical data on recovery rates of heavily exploited fish stocks. The authors point out that by the time the full benefits from no-take marine reserves are apparent, human populations and impacts will have doubled in much of the developing world. They therefore recommend that, networks of no-take marine reserves need to be implemented immediately and that management mechanisms for such reserves need to be successful over timescales of human generations.

In an earlier study of the same reserves, Russ and Alcala (1996) suggest that much of the strong recovery in large predator density was due to a strong recruitment of the serranids (grouper). Almost 5 years of protection from fishing at Sumilon reserve resulted in a significant increase in density (but not biomass) of large predators. The authors suggest that biomass did not increase because the fishes did not have time to grow to significantly larger sizes before they were fished again after the reserve was reopened. Thus, it is important to consider the recruitment strength and life histories of the targeted fish species as these can influence the perceived effectiveness of the marine reserves to replenish fish stocks through spillover. It is not valid to expect that recruitment will be immediately successful following the closure of a reserve area –it is even possible that successful recruitment may not occur for several years following reserve implementation.

[Hide details]

[Show details]

Among the most economically valuable and most vulnerable coral reef fishes are the large-bodied species such as large wrasses and groupers. These species are slow growing and long lived, with late maturity, spawning occurring in aggregations and low rates of replenishment (Rhodes & Sadovy 2002, Sado ...

[Hide details]

Among the most economically valuable and most vulnerable coral reef fishes are the large-bodied species such as large wrasses and groupers. These species are slow growing and long lived, with late maturity, spawning occurring in aggregations and low rates of replenishment (Rhodes & Sadovy 2002, Sadovy et al. 2003a,b). These life-history traits render them particularly vulnerable to overfishing and catches have dramatically declined over the past few decades (Donaldson & Sadovy 2001, Myers 1999). The humphead wrasse has been listed as ‘vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, (www.redlist.org) and was listed in Appendix II of the (CITES) in. In addition to their fishery value, large reef fishes are important to recreational divers and may have high tourism value (Rudd and Tupper 2002).

Using mark–recapture techniques, Tupper (2007) examined among-habitat variation in settlement, growth, persistence, and movement in 3 large, vulnerable reef fishes: the humphead wrasse Cheilinus undulatus, the squaretail coralgrouper Plectropomus areolatus, and the camouflage grouper Epinephelus polyphekadion. All three species are culturally and economically important throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Both C. undulatus and P. areolatus appeared to utilize specific nursery habitats. Settlement, growth, and persistence of humphead wrasse were highest in branching coral mixed with bushy macroalgae (BCMA). Moreover, 80% of tagged C. undulatus recaptured in intermediate or adult habitats were originally tagged in BCMA. Early juvenile P. areolatus were found almost exclusively in coral rubble habitats on the slopes of tidal channels, at a narrow depth range of 5 to 7 m. This same pattern was found for P. leopardus on the Great Barrier Reef (Light and Jones 1997). This dependence on one habitat type could render this species vulnerable to dredging operations or other forms of coastal development. E. polyphekadion appeared to be a habitat generalist, and no specific nursery habitat could be identified for this species.

In summary, implementation of marine protected areas should prioritize habitats for conservation according to their value as essential nursery or spawning habitats for target species. However, the formation of a new Protected Areas Network in Palau has yet to include nursery habitats, primarily because information on such habitats did not exist. The results of this study demonstrate that nursery habitats do exist for some commercially and culturally important reef fishes in Palau, and that some of these nurseries (e.g. rubble areas along the slopes of tidal channels) could be easily impacted by human activities, with potentially serious consequences for fish populations. Future land-use planning and spatial management efforts should account for nursery areas in addition to spawning sites.

[Hide details]

[Show details]

Proponents of marine protected areas routinely assert that their primary function is protect spawning stock biomass and increase fishery yields via improved recruitment resulting from larval dispersal (Johannes 2000). However, with few exceptions the great majority of Indo-Pacific MPAs have not incl ...

[Hide details]

Proponents of marine protected areas routinely assert that their primary function is protect spawning stock biomass and increase fishery yields via improved recruitment resulting from larval dispersal (Johannes 2000). However, with few exceptions the great majority of Indo-Pacific MPAs have not included spawning aggregation sites. Even Australia, with the world’s largest coral reef, has only recently begun protecting spawning aggregation sites. In this regard, Palau is 20 years ahead of other Indo-Pacific nations, having begun protection of a major grouper spawning aggregation at Ngerumekaol (aka Ulong Channel) since 1976. Another grouper spawning aggregation site at Ebiil Channel is also closed to fishing.

Traditional leaders in Palau once strictly regulated fishing through customary marine tenure and via a system of closed areas, closed seasons, minimum size limits, and a variety of other regulations (Johannes 1999). However, traditional authority has eroded over the past 50 years, and Palauan fishermen requested government intervention to strengthen national fisheries law. Now, in addition to a system of marine and coastal protected areas known as PAN (Protected Areas Network), which includes the Ngerumekaol and Ebiil spawning aggregation sites in addition to other, larger closed areas, Palau has implemented many other regulations, many of which are thought of has contemporary “Western” forms of fishery management. These include seasonal bans on fishing several key species of groupers, a complete moratorium on fishing vulnerable humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) and bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), minimum size limits for sex-changing groupers, minimum mesh sizes for nets and traps, gear restrictions including a ban on SCUBA spear fishing, and a complete ban on destructive dynamite and cyanide fishing. As a result, Palau has much healthier fish stocks than similar island nations, such as the Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, or American Samoa, all of which have less comprehensive fisheries management systems. Despite this, reef fish populations in Palau still appear to be declining, leading to the introduction of a bill in 2008 to ban all foreign fishing in Palau’s 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone. In summary, Palau is ahead of many other developing island nations in its use of a wide variety of fisheries management approaches (including MPAs), each of which can be considered one tool in a comprehensive toolbox.

[Hide details]